Conductivity meters Market Latest Analysis, Demand Trends, Growth Forecast 

Conductivity meters Market Production Trends Reflect Rising Semiconductor Water Monitoring and Industrial Automation Demand

Global production of conductivity meters crossed an estimated 18.6 million units in 2026, compared with nearly 15.9 million units in 2023, with East Asia accounting for more than 54% of manufacturing output. China, Japan, Germany, and the United States remain the primary production centers due to their concentration of electrochemical sensor suppliers, industrial instrumentation companies, and semiconductor process equipment manufacturers.

The Conductivity meters Market is estimated at approximately USD 2.9 billion in 2026, supported by sustained investments in ultrapure water systems, pharmaceutical process automation, lithium chemical processing, and municipal water quality monitoring. Production growth has remained uneven across product categories. Inline and digital conductivity transmitters used in continuous industrial monitoring are expanding at a faster pace than handheld laboratory units, particularly in semiconductor fabrication and power generation facilities where process water contamination thresholds continue to tighten below 1 µS/cm levels.

Japan and Germany continue to dominate high-precision conductivity sensor manufacturing because of their established expertise in electrochemical ceramics, platinum electrode fabrication, and analytical instrumentation calibration systems. China, meanwhile, has expanded its role in mid-range and industrial-grade production through large-scale electronics manufacturing ecosystems in Shenzhen, Suzhou, and Dongguan. During March 2025, China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology identified industrial process sensors among strategic automation components under advanced manufacturing modernization programs, accelerating domestic instrumentation output. This directly increased localized procurement of conductivity analyzers for chemical processing and industrial wastewater monitoring systems.

Sensor Architecture Changes Are Reshaping Conductivity meters Manufacturing Economics

Production technologies used in conductivity meters have shifted considerably from conventional two-electrode measurement systems toward four-electrode and inductive conductivity sensing platforms. This change is not merely performance-driven; it is also reducing lifecycle maintenance costs for industrial operators.

Traditional contacting conductivity meters continue to dominate laboratory and water testing applications because of lower production costs and easier calibration procedures. However, fouling, electrode polarization, and coating buildup have become significant operational concerns in high-solid or chemically aggressive environments. As a result, manufacturers are increasing investments in toroidal inductive conductivity sensors, especially for chemical plants, desalination systems, and battery precursor processing facilities.

Four-electrode conductivity cells are witnessing stronger production growth because they extend measurement range while minimizing polarization effects. These systems are increasingly integrated into semiconductor ultrapure water loops where trace ionic contamination can reduce wafer yield. Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. expanded several advanced fabrication lines through 2025, including additional 2 nm process capacity in Hsinchu and Kaohsiung. Such fabs require continuous monitoring of ultrapure water resistivity approaching 18.2 MΩ-cm, creating downstream demand for ultra-high sensitivity conductivity instrumentation.

Manufacturing processes for these advanced sensors increasingly rely on laser welding, thin-film platinum deposition, and automated ceramic encapsulation technologies. Japanese manufacturers have expanded precision ceramic machining capacity because electrode stability has become a major differentiator in pharmaceutical and microelectronics applications. Production yield improvements in sensor assembly are also reducing drift rates during long-duration industrial deployment.

Miniaturization is another major engineering trend influencing the Conductivity meters Market. Portable and compact inline devices are being redesigned with lower-power integrated circuits, MEMS-based temperature compensation modules, and multi-parameter sensing architectures. Instead of standalone conductivity measurement, many systems now combine conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, and TDS analysis within a single instrument platform.

This integration trend accelerated after water treatment infrastructure spending increased across several industrial economies. In October 2024, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced additional allocations under State Revolving Fund programs supporting drinking water and wastewater modernization projects exceeding USD 11 billion. Municipal operators increasingly shifted toward digitally connected water quality instrumentation, benefiting suppliers of network-enabled conductivity monitoring systems.

Conductivity meters Market Technology Transition Toward Digital and Continuous Monitoring Platforms

The production ecosystem for conductivity meters is becoming more software-intensive. Instrument differentiation is no longer limited to sensor accuracy alone. Connectivity architecture, predictive diagnostics, cloud integration, and remote calibration capabilities are becoming central purchasing factors across industrial sectors.

Industrial plants are increasingly replacing analog transmitters with digital conductivity analyzers supporting Ethernet/IP, Modbus TCP, and wireless communication standards. This is particularly visible in pharmaceutical manufacturing where validation compliance and data traceability requirements have tightened. Conductivity measurement is widely used in clean-in-place systems, purified water loops, and injectable drug manufacturing lines.

The International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering has noted rising adoption of automated water quality verification systems across biologics production facilities. This trend strengthened after multiple biopharmaceutical expansions in Ireland, Singapore, and the United States during 2024 and 2025. Eli Lilly announced manufacturing investments exceeding USD 9 billion in the United States during 2025 for injectable therapies and active pharmaceutical ingredient production. Such facilities require continuous conductivity verification in purified water and steam systems, supporting demand for high-accuracy inline conductivity instrumentation.

Artificial intelligence-assisted calibration is also moving into higher-end analytical instruments. Conductivity meters used in semiconductor and pharmaceutical applications now incorporate automated temperature correction algorithms and predictive maintenance alerts capable of identifying electrode degradation before failure occurs.

Manufacturers are embedding edge computing functionality into transmitters to reduce downtime in industrial automation systems. German automation suppliers have accelerated development of Industry 4.0-compatible analytical instruments because process industries are increasingly centralizing monitoring functions within distributed control systems.

At the same time, cost pressure remains visible in low-end handheld meter production. Commodity laboratory conductivity meters face intense pricing competition from Chinese manufacturers, limiting profitability across entry-level product categories. Several European suppliers have responded by shifting emphasis toward premium industrial analyzers and high-purity applications rather than competing directly on volume-driven portable devices.

Semiconductor Expansion and Battery Chemical Processing Increase Precision Measurement Requirements

The strongest technology-driven demand for advanced conductivity meters is emerging from semiconductor manufacturing and lithium battery chemical production.

Conductivity monitoring has become essential in semiconductor wet process systems because ionic contamination directly affects wafer integrity and process consistency. South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and the United States collectively account for the majority of advanced semiconductor fabrication investments influencing high-purity water instrumentation demand.

In April 2025, Intel advanced additional investments for semiconductor manufacturing expansion in Arizona and Ohio, including ultrapure water infrastructure upgrades. Semiconductor fabs consume millions of gallons of ultrapure water daily, requiring conductivity and resistivity monitoring at multiple stages including reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and polishing loops.

Battery materials production is another rapidly expanding application area. Lithium hydroxide and cathode precursor manufacturing involve aggressive chemical environments requiring corrosion-resistant conductivity sensors. Conductivity analysis is increasingly used to monitor electrolyte concentration, chemical dosing, and wastewater treatment during lithium refining processes.

Indonesia’s nickel processing expansion has indirectly strengthened regional demand for industrial conductivity instrumentation. Throughout 2024 and 2025, multiple high-pressure acid leach projects moved toward commissioning stages to support EV battery supply chains. These facilities require continuous chemical concentration monitoring because conductivity variations directly influence extraction efficiency and environmental compliance.

Electrode material innovation is becoming increasingly important due to such harsh industrial environments. Graphite-coated electrodes, titanium-based conductive surfaces, and advanced polymer sensor housings are gaining adoption in chemical processing applications where conventional stainless-steel assemblies degrade rapidly.

Manufacturing Automation Is Reducing Calibration Variability Across Conductivity meters Production Lines

Automation investment within instrumentation manufacturing facilities has improved production consistency and lowered calibration variability. Conductivity cell manufacturing previously depended heavily on manual electrode positioning and assembly alignment. Automated robotic assembly systems now dominate production in Japan, Germany, and high-volume Chinese factories.

Machine vision inspection systems are increasingly used during electrode spacing verification because even small geometric inconsistencies affect conductivity measurement precision. Automated calibration stations capable of multi-point conductivity verification are also reducing post-production adjustment requirements.

Traceability standards have tightened considerably in pharmaceutical and semiconductor sectors, forcing manufacturers to improve calibration documentation and component serialization systems. This has increased production costs for premium analytical instrumentation but also created higher barriers for low-cost manufacturers attempting to enter regulated industrial markets.

The Conductivity meters Market is therefore becoming increasingly segmented between low-cost commodity testing devices and highly engineered industrial analytical systems. The technology gap between these segments continues widening as advanced process industries demand higher stability, digital integration, and predictive monitoring functionality rather than basic conductivity measurement alone.

East Asia Maintains the Largest Share of Conductivity meters Market Production Capacity

Manufacturing concentration in the Conductivity meters Market remains heavily skewed toward East Asia, where electronics supply chains, analytical instrumentation ecosystems, and precision component fabrication capabilities are deeply integrated. China alone is estimated to account for nearly 38% of global conductivity meter unit production in 2026, supported by large-scale electronics assembly operations and cost-efficient sensor manufacturing clusters across Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang provinces. However, production leadership by volume does not fully translate into dominance in premium industrial instrumentation.

Japan continues to hold a disproportionately high share in high-precision conductivity analyzers used in semiconductor fabrication, pharmaceutical water systems, and laboratory-grade analytical applications. Japanese manufacturers collectively represent nearly 24% of global production value despite lower shipment volume than China. This imbalance reflects the higher average selling price of precision inline analyzers, ultrapure water conductivity systems, and advanced electrochemical sensors produced by Japanese companies.

Germany accounts for approximately 11%–13% of global conductivity instrumentation output by value, largely because of its concentration in industrial automation and process analytics. German production is heavily oriented toward chemical processing plants, food manufacturing systems, and wastewater automation infrastructure. Industrial instrumentation exports from Germany continued expanding during 2025 as European Union environmental compliance projects accelerated modernization of municipal and industrial water systems.

The United States maintains a strong position in high-end process analytical instruments, particularly for pharmaceutical manufacturing, biotechnology, power generation, and semiconductor applications. While its share of global unit manufacturing is smaller than China or Japan, the country remains important for premium instrumentation development and software-integrated analytical platforms.

Taiwan and South Korea have smaller direct production shares in conductivity meters themselves, yet they exert substantial influence over the market through semiconductor manufacturing demand. Their fab expansions continue driving procurement of ultrapure water conductivity analyzers and inline resistivity monitoring systems.

China Expands Mid-Range Conductivity meters Manufacturing Through Industrial Automation Investments

China’s manufacturing scale advantage in the Conductivity meters Market is closely linked to broader industrial automation investments. During 2025, the National Bureau of Statistics of China reported continued growth in industrial automation equipment production alongside rising deployment of smart factory infrastructure. This has strengthened domestic demand for conductivity analyzers used in industrial water treatment, lithium chemical processing, and environmental monitoring.

Chinese manufacturers have gained share in portable conductivity meters and mid-range industrial transmitters primarily because local production ecosystems reduce component procurement costs. Sensor housings, PCB assemblies, displays, wireless communication modules, and calibration systems are increasingly sourced domestically.

Battery chemical production has become an especially important growth driver. China processed more than 70% of global lithium-ion battery cathode materials entering 2026, and conductivity monitoring is widely used in precursor chemistry control and wastewater treatment systems. Expansion of lithium refining capacity in Sichuan and Qinghai has directly increased procurement of corrosion-resistant conductivity sensors for alkaline and acidic process environments.

Several Chinese instrumentation suppliers are also moving into digital and cloud-connected conductivity platforms. Industrial facilities adopting predictive maintenance systems increasingly require continuous process conductivity monitoring integrated into centralized factory management software.

Despite production scale advantages, Chinese suppliers still face limitations in ultra-high-purity conductivity applications where long-term measurement stability, low drift, and advanced calibration standards remain critical purchasing criteria.

Japanese and German Production Strength Comes From Precision Engineering Rather Than Volume

Japan’s conductivity instrumentation industry remains highly specialized. The country’s production ecosystem benefits from advanced ceramic manufacturing, thin-film electrode technologies, and stable electrochemical sensor fabrication capabilities. Japanese conductivity meters are widely used in ultrapure water systems supporting semiconductor wafer manufacturing and advanced pharmaceutical production.

The Semiconductor Equipment Association of Japan highlighted continued capital expenditure growth in wafer fabrication infrastructure during 2025, especially in advanced-node process facilities. These fabrication plants require highly stable resistivity monitoring systems capable of detecting minute ionic contamination. As a result, Japanese conductivity analyzer production remains closely linked to semiconductor capital spending cycles.

German manufacturers, meanwhile, benefit from Europe’s large installed base of industrial automation systems. Conductivity analyzers produced in Germany are strongly positioned in process industries such as chemicals, pulp and paper, food processing, and industrial wastewater treatment.

In February 2025, BASF announced further investments in chemical production optimization and energy efficiency projects at Ludwigshafen. Such industrial modernization projects typically involve upgrades to process analytical instrumentation, including conductivity measurement systems for chemical concentration control and water management.

Germany also benefits from stricter European environmental regulations. Industrial wastewater monitoring standards across the European Union increasingly require continuous conductivity analysis for compliance verification, strengthening domestic demand for industrial-grade conductivity instrumentation.

North American Production Focuses on High-Purity and Pharmaceutical Applications

The United States production landscape is shaped less by manufacturing volume and more by application specialization. Conductivity analyzers produced domestically are widely deployed in biotechnology manufacturing, injectable pharmaceutical production, and semiconductor ultrapure water systems.

Biopharmaceutical investment activity remains a major market catalyst. During 2024 and 2025, multiple large-scale manufacturing projects were announced across North Carolina, Indiana, and Massachusetts for biologics and sterile injectable production. These facilities require continuous conductivity verification within purified water loops, clean steam systems, and CIP processes.

The U.S. Department of Energy’s support for semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure has also indirectly increased conductivity instrumentation demand. Semiconductor fabs require highly controlled water quality systems because trace ionic impurities directly influence wafer yield and process stability.

Domestic production is further supported by strong software integration capabilities. American manufacturers increasingly differentiate products through predictive diagnostics, cloud-based analytics, and remote calibration systems rather than competing directly on hardware cost.

Conductivity meters Market Segmentation Shows Strong Shift Toward Continuous Process Monitoring

The segmentation structure within the Conductivity meters Market is changing due to industrial automation, water reuse requirements, and semiconductor process control expansion.

Segmentation highlights

• Inline/process conductivity meters account for nearly 46% of total market revenue in 2026 due to continuous monitoring demand from chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, and semiconductor manufacturing.
• Portable conductivity meters remain dominant by shipment volume because of laboratory, educational, and field-testing applications, although pricing pressure continues reducing revenue share.
• Inductive conductivity sensors are recording faster growth than contacting sensors in harsh chemical applications because of lower maintenance requirements and improved resistance to fouling.
• Semiconductor ultrapure water applications are among the fastest-growing premium segments, with annual demand growth estimated above 8% through 2028 due to advanced fab construction in Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and the United States.
• Water and wastewater treatment remains the largest application category by installed base, supported by municipal infrastructure upgrades and industrial water recycling mandates.
• Pharmaceutical and biotechnology applications are expanding rapidly because conductivity validation remains essential for purified water compliance and cleaning verification systems.
• Multi-parameter analytical instruments integrating conductivity, pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen measurement are steadily replacing standalone devices in industrial facilities.
• Digital conductivity analyzers with Ethernet and wireless connectivity are gaining share across process industries implementing centralized monitoring architectures.

Demand Trend Reflects Water Reuse Expansion and High-Purity Manufacturing Growth

Demand conditions for conductivity meters remain closely linked to industrial water quality management and high-purity manufacturing activity. Water stress concerns are accelerating investment in recycling and desalination infrastructure, particularly in Asia-Pacific and the Middle East. Conductivity measurement is central to reverse osmosis optimization, ion exchange performance monitoring, and desalination process control.

Saudi Arabia accelerated desalination investments through 2025 under water security expansion programs, increasing deployment of conductivity monitoring systems across large-scale water treatment plants. Similar trends are visible in Singapore, where NEWater recycling infrastructure continues requiring advanced conductivity analysis for reclaimed water quality verification.

At the same time, semiconductor manufacturing is increasing demand for ultra-sensitive conductivity instrumentation. Taiwan, South Korea, and the United States collectively announced semiconductor manufacturing investments exceeding USD 250 billion between 2024 and 2026. Every advanced fabrication plant requires extensive ultrapure water infrastructure with continuous conductivity and resistivity monitoring at multiple treatment stages.

The Conductivity meters Market is therefore increasingly dependent on sectors where measurement precision directly influences production yield, regulatory compliance, and operational efficiency rather than conventional laboratory testing demand alone.

Competitive Positioning in the Conductivity meters Market Is Increasingly Driven by Industrial Automation Capabilities

The Conductivity meters Market is led by a relatively small group of industrial instrumentation and analytical technology companies that dominate high-value applications such as semiconductor water systems, pharmaceutical manufacturing, chemical processing, and municipal water automation. Market competition has shifted away from conventional handheld testing devices toward digitally integrated analytical platforms capable of continuous monitoring, predictive maintenance, and centralized process control.

Large industrial customers increasingly prefer suppliers that can integrate conductivity analyzers with broader plant automation infrastructure. This trend has favored multinational process instrumentation companies with established installed bases in chemical plants, power generation facilities, semiconductor fabs, and biologics manufacturing sites.

At the same time, lower-cost portable conductivity meters remain highly fragmented, particularly across Asia-Pacific where Chinese manufacturers continue expanding shipment volumes through aggressive pricing strategies.

Emerson Strengthens Conductivity Analyzer Presence Through Process Automation Integration

Emerson Electric remains one of the most influential participants in industrial conductivity instrumentation through its Rosemount analytical portfolio. The company’s Rosemount 56 analyzer and associated conductivity sensor systems are widely deployed in power generation, petrochemical processing, industrial water treatment, and pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Emerson’s competitive advantage is closely tied to its automation ecosystem rather than standalone sensor hardware. Industrial operators increasingly procure conductivity analyzers alongside distributed control systems and predictive maintenance software platforms. This integration capability has strengthened Emerson’s position in large-scale industrial modernization projects across North America and the Middle East.

The company maintains particularly strong exposure to refinery process monitoring and industrial boiler water management systems, where conductivity measurement is essential for corrosion prevention and process optimization.

Endress+Hauser Expands Through Digital Sensor Platforms and Hygienic Applications

Endress+Hauser has significantly expanded its influence in the Conductivity meters Market through digital liquid analysis systems. Its Liquiline transmitters and Memosens digital sensor technology have become widely adopted across food processing, water treatment, chemical manufacturing, and pharmaceutical applications.

The CLS82D conductivity sensor series remains one of the company’s important product lines for ultrapure water and hygienic process environments. Semiconductor and pharmaceutical manufacturers increasingly require low-drift conductivity systems with strict calibration traceability, areas where Endress+Hauser has maintained strong positioning.

The company also benefits from Europe’s tightening industrial wastewater regulations and growing investment in water reuse infrastructure. Industrial operators upgrading treatment plants are increasingly replacing analog conductivity systems with digital analyzers capable of remote diagnostics and predictive maintenance support.

Endress+Hauser expanded liquid analysis sensor production capacity in Germany during late 2025 to support rising demand for process analytical instrumentation used in industrial automation and water quality systems.

Yokogawa and Japanese Manufacturers Maintain Leadership in Semiconductor Applications

Japanese companies continue holding a strong position in high-precision conductivity instrumentation, particularly for semiconductor ultrapure water monitoring. Yokogawa Electric remains one of the most prominent suppliers in this segment through its FLXA402 liquid analyzer platform and SC series conductivity sensors.

The company’s conductivity systems are widely used in advanced semiconductor fabrication facilities across Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Semiconductor fabs require extremely stable conductivity and resistivity monitoring because even trace ionic contamination can affect wafer yield.

Japanese manufacturers benefit from advanced ceramic processing capabilities, thin-film electrode manufacturing, and high-precision calibration technologies. These technical advantages remain difficult for lower-cost suppliers to replicate in critical ultrapure water applications.

Growth in advanced-node semiconductor production has directly strengthened demand for premium conductivity analyzers. Ongoing fab construction projects in Taiwan and the United States continue increasing procurement of inline resistivity monitoring systems integrated into ultrapure water treatment loops.

Thermo Fisher and Mettler Toledo Focus on Pharmaceutical and Laboratory Precision

Thermo Fisher Scientific maintains a broad conductivity instrumentation portfolio covering laboratory analysis, industrial water systems, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and biotechnology applications. The Orion Star product family remains widely used in laboratories, research institutions, and pharmaceutical quality-control operations.

The company’s strength comes from its diversified analytical instrumentation business and strong exposure to life sciences industries. Conductivity measurement is essential in clean-in-place validation, purified water monitoring, and injectable drug production systems.

Biopharmaceutical manufacturing expansion across the United States and Europe has supported demand for high-accuracy conductivity instrumentation. Sterile manufacturing environments increasingly require continuous digital verification of water purity and cleaning processes.

Mettler Toledo remains particularly strong in premium ultrapure water applications through its Thornton product family. The Thornton 770MAX transmitter platform and UniCond conductivity sensors are widely used in semiconductor fabs and pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities.

The company has built a strong reputation around low-conductivity measurement stability, compliance-oriented calibration systems, and traceability documentation. Pharmaceutical manufacturers prioritize these capabilities because conductivity verification forms part of regulatory compliance for purified water systems.

ABB, Hach, and Xylem Continue Expanding Water Infrastructure Exposure

ABB maintains a significant presence in industrial water treatment and process analytical instrumentation. The company’s conductivity analyzers are commonly integrated into automated treatment systems for chemical plants, municipal water infrastructure, and industrial process facilities.

Demand for ABB conductivity systems has benefited from growing investment in industrial wastewater management and desalination infrastructure, particularly in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific.

Hach remains highly influential in municipal water quality monitoring. Its HQ series portable meters and SC analytical systems are widely used by water utilities, environmental laboratories, and wastewater treatment operators.

The company’s position has strengthened as governments continue modernizing water infrastructure. Continuous conductivity monitoring is increasingly required for regulatory compliance and real-time water quality verification.

Xylem, through its analytics operations, maintains strong positioning in environmental monitoring and smart water systems. The company benefits from rising investment in water reuse infrastructure and desalination projects where conductivity analysis plays an important operational role.

Conductivity meters Market Share Structure Shows Clear Separation Between Premium and Volume Segments

Revenue concentration within the Conductivity meters Market remains highest in industrial-grade inline analyzers rather than portable handheld devices. Premium suppliers dominate applications requiring advanced digital integration, low measurement drift, and regulatory compliance support.

Approximate global revenue distribution in 2026 indicates:

• Emerson Electric holds one of the largest shares due to strong industrial automation integration and process analytics deployment.
• Endress+Hauser remains among the leading suppliers in water treatment and hygienic process industries.
• Yokogawa maintains substantial share in semiconductor and high-purity industrial applications.
• Thermo Fisher Scientific and Mettler Toledo continue dominating pharmaceutical and laboratory-focused conductivity systems.
• ABB, Hach, and Xylem maintain strong exposure to municipal water and industrial wastewater sectors.

Chinese manufacturers account for a much larger share of shipment volume than revenue because competition in portable conductivity meters remains highly price-sensitive. Many regional suppliers focus on educational laboratories, general industrial testing, and entry-level handheld products where margins are comparatively low.

By contrast, semiconductor and pharmaceutical conductivity systems command significantly higher average selling prices because they require advanced sensor materials, precision calibration systems, digital communication capabilities, and long operational stability.

Recent Industry Developments and Ecosystem Expansion

During 2025, semiconductor manufacturing expansion across Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and the United States continued increasing demand for ultrapure water conductivity analyzers integrated into advanced fabrication facilities.

Endress+Hauser expanded analytical sensor manufacturing operations in Germany during late 2025 to increase production capacity for liquid analysis systems used in industrial automation and process industries.

ABB introduced additional smart liquid analysis solutions during 2024 targeting real-time industrial monitoring and predictive maintenance integration within water treatment and chemical processing facilities.

Thermo Fisher Scientific expanded cloud-enabled analytical monitoring capabilities during 2024 to strengthen remote diagnostics and connected laboratory functionality across water quality instrumentation platforms.

Biopharmaceutical manufacturing investments announced during 2025 in the United States and Europe continued supporting demand for validated conductivity instrumentation used in purified water systems and sterile production environments.

Industrial water reuse projects across the Middle East and Asia-Pacific also accelerated deployment of continuous conductivity monitoring systems in desalination and wastewater recycling facilities.