Commercial Turbofan Engines Market | Revenue, Sales, Demand Mapping, Market Share and Forecast 

Market Summary and Growth Forecast

The global Commercial Turbofan Engines Market is valued at $42,680 million in 2026 and is expected to appreciate to $67,950 million by 2035, at a CAGR of 5.3%.

Commercial turbofan engines are the primary propulsion systems used in modern passenger and commercial aircraft, particularly narrow-body, wide-body, and regional jet platforms. The market covers new engine deliveries, engine programs, and related propulsion demand tied to commercial aviation. Its business relevance extends beyond engine manufacturers. Airlines, aircraft OEMs, maintenance providers, leasing companies, suppliers of high-performance materials, and aviation finance groups all depend on the health of this ecosystem.

Between 2026 and 2035, demand will be shaped by a combination of aircraft deliveries, fleet replacement, rising air traffic, engine efficiency requirements, and the growing importance of aftermarket services. Airlines are under constant pressure to reduce fuel consumption and operating costs. That makes engine efficiency a commercial priority rather than simply an engineering objective.

The Commercial Turbofan Engines Market is also entering a period in which product development is increasingly tied to emissions performance. Aircraft operators and regulators are placing more attention on fuel burn, carbon intensity, noise, and the ability of propulsion systems to operate with lower-carbon aviation fuels. Current-generation high-bypass turbofans already incorporate advanced combustion systems, lightweight structures, improved turbine cooling, and increasingly sophisticated digital monitoring.

Market indicator	2026	2035
Global market value	$42.68 billion	$67.95 billion
CAGR	—	5.3%
Primary demand base	New aircraft + fleet replacement	New aircraft + replacement + aftermarket-linked demand
Main aircraft platforms	Narrow-body and wide-body jets	Narrow-body, wide-body and emerging regional platforms

Production capacity will remain an important constraint. Commercial aircraft programs require long qualification cycles, specialized manufacturing, and tightly controlled supplier networks. Engine makers therefore have to balance new production with maintenance and overhaul obligations for the installed fleet. This creates a relatively resilient revenue structure, especially for engines with large aircraft fleets already in service.

Regulation is another structural influence. Noise requirements, emissions standards, airworthiness certification, and evolving sustainability policies are pushing manufacturers toward more efficient propulsion architectures. The transition will not happen through one technology alone. Instead, incremental improvements in aerodynamics, thermal efficiency, materials, combustion, and manufacturing are likely to remain central through 2035.

The key consumers and clients include commercial airlines, aircraft leasing companies, aircraft manufacturers, government-linked aviation operators, and maintenance, repair and overhaul providers. Airlines remain the ultimate economic buyers, but engine selection is often determined jointly with aircraft manufacturers and influenced by lifecycle economics, reliability, financing, maintenance arrangements, and fleet commonality.

Expert view: The strongest commercial advantage through 2035 is likely to come from engines that combine lower fuel consumption with high reliability and manageable maintenance costs. A modest efficiency gain can have a material effect when applied across hundreds of aircraft operating thousands of hours each year.

Key outlook: The Commercial Turbofan Engines Market should remain closely linked to global passenger traffic, aircraft replacement cycles, and the recovery and expansion of airline fleet investment. The opportunity is therefore not limited to engine deliveries. It also extends across long-term service agreements, replacement engines, components, diagnostics, and maintenance ecosystems.

Market Segmentation and Forecast Scope

The Commercial Turbofan Engines Market can be evaluated across product type, aircraft application, end user, and geography. This structure helps separate demand generated by aircraft production from demand associated with fleet renewal and long-term engine support.

By Product Type

The market can be divided into high-bypass turbofan engines, low-bypass turbofan engines, and other specialized commercial propulsion configurations. High-bypass engines dominate commercial passenger aviation because their architecture supports the combination of fuel efficiency, thrust, and noise performance required by modern transport aircraft.

High-bypass turbofans account for approximately 88.5% of global market value in 2026, making them the clear commercial center of the market. Their importance should remain high through 2035, although the technology within this category will continue to evolve.

The strategic opportunity is shifting from simply increasing thrust toward improving the overall propulsion system. Manufacturers are working on higher pressure ratios, improved fan and compressor aerodynamics, better thermal management, lighter structures, and more efficient combustion.

By Application

By application, the market covers narrow-body aircraft, wide-body aircraft, and regional commercial aircraft.

Narrow-body aircraft represent the largest demand pool in 2026, supported by their broad use on domestic, regional, and medium-haul routes. Wide-body aircraft remain important because their engines are typically larger and more technologically complex, while regional aircraft provide a smaller but specialized demand base.

The narrow-body segment holds an estimated 61.8% share in 2026. Its scale makes it particularly important for engine manufacturers because a successful propulsion platform can generate large production volumes and an extensive installed base.

Example: A turbofan selected for a high-volume narrow-body aircraft program can create revenue opportunities for decades because the initial engine sale may be followed by spare-engine demand, replacement components, maintenance contracts, and overhaul services.

By End User

End users include commercial airlines, aircraft leasing companies, and MRO providers, with aircraft OEMs playing an important role in engine integration and program selection.

Airlines are the principal operating customers. Their purchasing decisions increasingly consider total lifecycle economics rather than the initial engine price alone. Fuel consumption, dispatch reliability, maintenance intervals, spare-engine requirements, and long-term service support can all influence engine selection.

Leasing companies are also strategically relevant because they own a large share of the global commercial aircraft fleet. Engine reliability and residual value can therefore affect aircraft financing and asset economics.

By Region

The regional framework comprises North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and LAMEA.

North America remains a mature and technologically advanced market, supported by major airlines, established aircraft fleets, engine manufacturers, and a large MRO ecosystem.

Europe has a strong position in propulsion engineering and aerospace manufacturing. Regulatory pressure around emissions and noise also makes the region an important testing ground for lower-emission propulsion technologies.

Asia Pacific represents the fastest-growing strategic demand center. Expanding airline fleets, increasing passenger traffic, new airport infrastructure, and aircraft replacement needs support long-term engine demand. China and India are particularly important within the regional outlook, although their market structures and aircraft procurement patterns differ.

LAMEA remains smaller in absolute terms but offers opportunities through fleet modernization, increasing air connectivity, and rising demand for commercial aviation services in selected markets.

Segmentation dimension	Key segments	2026 strategic observation
Product type	High-bypass, low-bypass, other commercial configurations	High-bypass: 88.5% share
Application	Narrow-body, wide-body, regional aircraft	Narrow-body: 61.8% share
End user	Airlines, lessors, MRO providers	Airlines remain the core operating customer
Region	North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, LAMEA	Asia Pacific offers the strongest expansion opportunity

The fastest-growing strategic pockets are likely to be advanced high-bypass propulsion, narrow-body aircraft engines, and demand connected with Asia Pacific fleet expansion. At the same time, mature markets will remain commercially valuable because they generate replacement demand and extensive aftermarket activity.

Market Trends and Business Innovations

Innovation in the Commercial Turbofan Engines Market is moving toward efficiency gains that can be delivered without compromising reliability or increasing maintenance complexity. The industry is not relying on one breakthrough. Instead, manufacturers are combining improvements across the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine, materials, manufacturing processes, and digital monitoring systems.

R&D Is Moving Toward Higher Efficiency

Research programs increasingly focus on improving the relationship between engine pressure, temperature, airflow, weight, and fuel consumption. Higher-efficiency compressor systems, improved turbine aerodynamics, advanced combustion technologies, and optimized fan designs are central areas of development.

At the same time, manufacturers are working to make new architectures compatible with future aircraft requirements. This includes preparing propulsion systems for greater use of sustainable aviation fuel and exploring architectures that could support substantially lower emissions over the longer term.

Materials Are Becoming a Competitive Differentiator

Materials remain particularly important because commercial turbofan engines operate under extreme temperatures, pressures, and mechanical loads. Manufacturers continue to use advanced nickel-based superalloys, titanium alloys, ceramic matrix composites, thermal barrier coatings, and other lightweight or heat-resistant materials where their performance justifies the cost and manufacturing complexity.

The commercial value of these materials is straightforward. If an engine can operate efficiently at higher temperatures while controlling weight and durability, the resulting improvement can affect fuel consumption and maintenance economics.

Additive manufacturing is also becoming more useful for selected aerospace components. Its value lies not only in reducing material waste but also in enabling geometries that can be difficult to produce through conventional manufacturing methods.

Digital Systems and AI Have a Growing Supporting Role

AI is relevant to the market primarily through engine health monitoring, predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, and operational optimization rather than direct control of the core propulsion system.

Modern engines generate large volumes of operating data. Analytics can be used to identify unusual performance patterns, support maintenance planning, and reduce the likelihood of unexpected component-related disruptions. For airlines, the business benefit can be significant because avoiding an unplanned aircraft grounding is often more valuable than making a small improvement in routine maintenance efficiency.

Expert view: AI is unlikely to replace established engine engineering practices. Its stronger near-term role is as a decision-support layer that helps airlines and MRO organizations interpret engine data faster and schedule maintenance with greater confidence.

Partnerships Are Increasingly Important

Engine development requires large capital commitments and long certification timelines. As a result, partnerships and joint development programs remain a practical route for sharing technical expertise, investment, manufacturing capability, and program risk.

The industry has also seen closer collaboration between engine manufacturers, aircraft OEMs, airlines, MRO companies, material suppliers, and technology firms. These relationships are becoming more important as propulsion development expands beyond the engine itself into aircraft integration, digital services, sustainable fuels, and lifecycle management.

Sustainable Aviation Fuel Is Influencing Engine Development

Sustainable aviation fuel is becoming an important consideration in propulsion R&D. Existing commercial turbofan platforms are being evaluated and certified around increasingly broader SAF usage pathways, reducing the need for airlines to wait for an entirely new propulsion architecture before beginning their emissions-reduction efforts.

That creates a practical transition path. Airlines can continue operating existing fleets while gradually increasing the use of lower-carbon fuels, while engine manufacturers continue improving the underlying propulsion technology.

Business Model Innovation Is Moving Beyond the Engine Sale

Another important trend is the growing emphasis on lifecycle support. Engine manufacturers increasingly compete on availability, maintenance support, data services, spare-parts access, and long-term performance rather than on the initial hardware transaction alone.

This matters because the economic life of a commercial turbofan engine can extend for many years. A manufacturer that secures a large installed base can create recurring opportunities through overhaul, parts replacement, technical support, monitoring, and service agreements.

Expert view: Over the next decade, propulsion competition will increasingly be measured across the full engine lifecycle. A highly efficient engine that is difficult or expensive to maintain may lose ground to a slightly less aggressive design with stronger reliability and service economics.

Overall, the Commercial Turbofan Engines Market is moving toward a model where propulsion hardware, advanced materials, digital intelligence, sustainable-fuel compatibility, and long-term service support are increasingly connected. This combination should shape investment priorities through 2035.

Competitive Intelligence and Benchmarking

The competitive structure of the Commercial Turbofan Engines Market is concentrated among a small number of established aerospace propulsion companies. High certification costs, long development cycles, strict reliability requirements, and deep relationships with aircraft manufacturers make entry difficult. Competitive advantage therefore depends on more than engine technology. Installed fleet size, aftermarket capability, manufacturing scale, supply-chain resilience, and long-term airline relationships are equally important.

GE Aerospace

GE Aerospace remains one of the strongest players in commercial aircraft propulsion, with a broad portfolio covering narrow-body and wide-body applications and a particularly strong installed base. Its commercial strategy combines engine development with a large services and component-support ecosystem.

The company is also expanding manufacturing capacity. In March 2025, GE Aerospace announced nearly $1 billion of planned U.S. manufacturing and supply-chain investment, including capacity for narrow-body engine production and advanced materials.

Its market position is strengthened by its role in CFM International, the 50:50 joint venture with Safran Aircraft Engines. This gives GE exposure to one of the largest single-aisle commercial propulsion platforms while maintaining its own position in larger aircraft engines.

RTX / Pratt & Whitney

Pratt & Whitney competes across narrow-body, regional, and wide-body propulsion, with its geared-fan architecture providing the company’s main technology differentiation in the current single-aisle market.

The company has more than 13,000 large commercial engines installed and supports hundreds of airline operators. Its geared engine family serves the Airbus A320neo family, Airbus A220, and Embraer E-Jets E2 platforms.

The company’s position is increasingly supported by aftermarket expansion. RTX reported that its GTF maintenance network reached 21 facilities, while GTF engines powered more than 2,600 aircraft for over 90 operators according to its 2025 annual reporting.

Safran Aircraft Engines

Safran has a particularly strong position in single-aisle propulsion through its 50:50 CFM International partnership with GE Aerospace. Its portfolio also includes larger commercial engine programs and a growing global maintenance network.

The company is investing heavily in production and lifecycle support. In April 2026, Safran announced a €150 million investment to modernize forging capacity at its Gennevilliers site, with production expected to nearly double by 2035 across engine families.

Safran’s position is also strengthening in India. In November 2025, it inaugurated a €200 million LEAP engine MRO facility in Hyderabad, designed to reach capacity of about 300 engine shop visits per year.

Rolls-Royce

Rolls-Royce is strongly positioned in the large commercial aircraft engine segment. Its competitive strength comes from high-thrust propulsion, long-haul aircraft relationships, engineering expertise, and a substantial aftermarket business.

Its commercial portfolio is focused more heavily on wide-body aircraft than the single-aisle segment. This creates a different competitive profile from GE, CFM, and Pratt & Whitney. The company’s ongoing investment in its large-engine family is aimed at improving durability and efficiency while protecting lifecycle economics.

In June 2025, Rolls-Royce confirmed a major order commitment from Riyadh Air involving 50 engines for 25 Airbus A350-1000 aircraft, alongside an announced £1 billion investment in its Trent engine family.

MTU Aero Engines

MTU Aero Engines holds an important position through partnerships and risk-sharing programs rather than relying solely on independently developed commercial engine families.

Its portfolio spans short- and medium-haul, long-haul, and regional propulsion programs. The company has particular relevance in the GTF ecosystem and contributes engineering, manufacturing, and aftermarket capabilities to major engine programs.

At the July 2026 Farnborough International Airshow, MTU reported approximately $500 million in orders across short-, medium-, long-haul, and regional engine programs, with a significant portion tied to the GTF family.

International Aero Engines (IAE)

International Aero Engines remains strategically relevant because of its installed base of V2500 engines on earlier-generation narrow-body aircraft. The program has created a long tail of maintenance, component, overhaul, and replacement-engine demand.

The competitive importance of IAE is therefore less about new-generation aircraft wins and more about the economics of the installed fleet. Its partner structure also connects several established aerospace companies to the aftermarket opportunity.

Benchmarking insight: Competition is increasingly shifting from “who can sell the most engines” to “who can keep the largest installed fleet productive at an acceptable lifecycle cost.” That favors companies with strong aftermarket infrastructure, reliable supply chains, and long-term customer contracts.

Company	Core competitive position	Strategic strength
GE Aerospace	Narrow-body and wide-body propulsion	Installed base, CFM partnership, manufacturing scale
Pratt & Whitney	Single-aisle and regional propulsion	Geared architecture and expanding GTF aftermarket
Safran Aircraft Engines	Strong single-aisle position through CFM	LEAP production, MRO and materials capability
Rolls-Royce	Large commercial aircraft	Wide-body propulsion and lifecycle services
MTU Aero Engines	Partner-based commercial programs	Engineering, manufacturing and aftermarket
International Aero Engines	Mature narrow-body fleet	Large installed base and aftermarket relevance

Regional Landscape and Adoption Outlook

Regional demand for commercial turbofan engines follows aircraft deliveries, passenger traffic, fleet age, airport capacity, airline financial strength, and government aviation policy. The strongest growth is not necessarily concentrated in the regions with the largest existing fleets. Emerging fleet expansion can create larger incremental engine demand than mature replacement markets.

United States

The United States remains one of the most important commercial propulsion markets because of its large airline fleet, major aircraft operators, established MRO network, and concentration of aerospace engineering and manufacturing.

The FAA’s 2025–2045 forecast projected the U.S. commercial aircraft fleet to rise from 7,387 aircraft in 2024 to 10,607 by 2045, equivalent to an average annual increase of 1.7%. The forecast also anticipates continued replacement of older, less-efficient aircraft with newer narrow-body and wide-body platforms.

This makes the U.S. a two-layer opportunity. New aircraft create demand for new engines, while the existing fleet supports a substantial aftermarket.

Country-level leaders: The United States remains the leading mature market for aerospace propulsion technology, with major airline customers and a deep supplier ecosystem.

Infrastructure and funding: The market benefits from extensive airport infrastructure, established MRO capacity, federal aviation oversight, and large private-sector fleet investment.

Europe

Europe is a mature but strategically important market. Its importance comes from both aircraft demand and regulation. European airlines are under increasing pressure to improve fuel efficiency and reduce aviation emissions.

The EU’s ReFuelEU Aviation framework requires fuel suppliers to provide at least 2% SAF from 2025, rising progressively to 70% by 2050.

That policy indirectly supports engine demand for more efficient aircraft because fuel costs and emissions performance become more visible in airline fleet decisions.

France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Italy remain important aviation markets. France and Germany also have major aerospace manufacturing capabilities, while the United Kingdom remains particularly important for large commercial propulsion.

Infrastructure and funding: Europe has strong aerospace R&D capabilities and public-private support mechanisms. However, regulatory compliance and sustainability requirements can increase development and operating costs.

China

China is one of the most important long-term expansion markets for commercial turbofan engines. The scale of its airline fleet and domestic passenger network provides a large demand base, while domestic aerospace manufacturing is becoming increasingly important.

At the end of 2025, China had 65 commercial airlines and 4,574 commercial aircraft. It also had 270 civil transport airports, while passenger traffic reached approximately 770 million during the year.

Commercial aviation activity continued to expand. Passenger turnover increased 8.3% in 2025, while cargo and mail turnover increased 16.7%.

The country is also developing domestic aircraft and propulsion capabilities. This creates a more complex competitive environment for international engine suppliers over the long term.

Country-level leader: China is the dominant aviation market in East Asia by fleet scale and domestic passenger volume.

Infrastructure and funding: Strong state involvement, airport investment, domestic aerospace programs, and long-term industrial policy provide significant support. The revised Civil Aviation Law is also scheduled to take effect from July 1, 2026.

India

India stands out as one of the highest-growth opportunities in the global commercial aviation ecosystem. Airline fleet expansion, rising passenger demand, airport development, and the growth of domestic MRO capacity are all increasing the need for commercial engines and lifecycle services.

In July 2026, India’s Ministry of Civil Aviation highlighted an aircraft order pipeline of 2,056 aircraft, illustrating the scale of fleet expansion under way.

India is also becoming more relevant as an aerospace manufacturing and maintenance base. GE Aerospace has more than 1,400 commercial engines in service in India, while Safran inaugurated a large LEAP MRO center in Hyderabad in November 2025.

Country-level leader: India is emerging as one of the strongest high-growth commercial aviation markets outside China.

Infrastructure and funding: Airport expansion and the Make in India industrial policy are supporting local manufacturing and MRO. The main constraint is execution speed. Fleet growth requires sufficient maintenance capacity, trained personnel, spare parts, and airport infrastructure to keep aircraft utilization high.

Japan

Japan is a mature aviation market with strong demand for wide-body and narrow-body aircraft, supported by major carriers and a sophisticated maintenance ecosystem.

The market is more replacement-driven than India or China. That said, Japan remains strategically valuable because airline operators place a high premium on reliability and operational performance.

GE Aerospace reported in October 2025 that its high-thrust commercial engine family had surpassed 5 million flight hours in Japan, with 68 aircraft in service and another 42 on order across JAL, ANA, and Nippon Cargo Airlines.

Infrastructure and funding: Japan has mature airports, advanced MRO capabilities, strong airline balance sheets, and close relationships with global aerospace suppliers. Its aerospace ecosystem also benefits from high engineering standards.

South Korea

South Korea is another strategically important Asia Pacific market, particularly for wide-body and international aviation.

The country’s leading carriers continue to expand and modernize fleets. In 2025, Korean Air selected GE/CFM propulsion across a large aircraft order, including engines for 103 Boeing aircraft, alongside long-term services.

The market’s importance should increase as Korean carriers expand long-haul networks and integrate fleet strategies following industry consolidation.

Infrastructure and funding: Seoul and the wider Korean aviation system benefit from modern airport infrastructure, a strong industrial base, and significant aerospace manufacturing capabilities. The country also has an established position in advanced manufacturing and electronics, which supports adoption of digital engine-monitoring technologies.

Middle East

The Middle East is highly relevant because several Gulf states are pursuing aviation-led economic diversification. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar are particularly important for wide-body aircraft demand and international hub development.

Saudi Arabia provides the clearest current expansion example. In November 2025, Riyadh Air selected 120 CFM engines for 60 Airbus A321neo aircraft, while in June 2025 it committed to 50 Rolls-Royce engines for 25 Airbus A350-1000 aircraft.

Regional insight: Asia Pacific offers the strongest combination of fleet expansion and passenger-growth potential, while the Middle East offers unusually large aircraft orders linked to hub development. North America and Europe remain essential because of their replacement cycles, installed fleets, and aftermarket depth.

Region	Demand profile	Infrastructure	Regulatory / funding environment	Outlook
United States	Large fleet + replacement	Very mature	Strong federal oversight and private investment	Stable expansion
Europe	Replacement + efficiency-driven demand	Highly developed	Strong emissions policy	Moderate growth with technology focus
China	Fleet expansion + domestic aviation growth	Rapidly expanding	Strong government participation	High strategic growth
India	New fleet + MRO expansion	Rapid development	Make in India + infrastructure investment	Very high growth potential
Japan	Replacement + long-haul demand	Highly mature	Strong quality and safety framework	Stable
South Korea	International fleet modernization	Advanced	Strong industrial ecosystem	Moderate-to-high
Middle East	Hub expansion + large aircraft orders	Rapid investment	State-backed aviation strategies	High

Recent Developments + Opportunities & Restraints

Recent Developments

July 2026 — CFM International and IndiGo announced a major engine agreement. IndiGo signed an MoU for more than 1,000 commercial engines to support 510 Airbus A320neo family aircraft. The agreement also includes support for IndiGo’s planned engine MRO facility and a long-term materials arrangement. The deal highlights India’s growing importance as both an aircraft demand center and an engine-services market.

July 2026 — Pratt & Whitney exceeded 800 GTF orders and commitments for the year. The company reported more than 800 GTF engine orders and commitments since the beginning of 2026, taking the broader GTF backlog above 8,000 engines. This reinforces the competitive importance of geared propulsion in the single-aisle market.

July 2026 — CFM advanced its next-generation propulsion program. CFM reported completion of important design reviews and additional testing milestones for advanced architectures, including an open-fan concept, compact-core technologies, and hybrid-electric systems. The company said approximately 500 test campaigns had been conducted over five years.

November 2025 — Safran expanded its Indian commercial engine ecosystem. Safran inaugurated a €200 million LEAP MRO center in Hyderabad, designed to reach approximately 300 shop visits per year. The investment strengthens India’s position as a regional maintenance hub for next-generation narrow-body engines.

March 2025 — GE Aerospace announced nearly $1 billion of U.S. manufacturing investment. The program covers factory expansion, supplier development, advanced materials, inspection technologies, and capacity increases for commercial engine production. The company also planned to hire approximately 5,000 U.S. workers during 2025.

Opportunities

1. India and wider Asia Pacific fleet expansion

The large aircraft order pipeline in India and continued aviation expansion in China and Southeast Asia should create demand for new engines, spare engines, components, MRO, and digital fleet-support services. India is particularly attractive because engine demand is increasingly being matched by local manufacturing and MRO investment.

2. Predictive maintenance and remote engine monitoring

As engine fleets become more digitally connected, airlines and MRO providers can use operational data to identify abnormal performance earlier and improve maintenance planning. The opportunity is less about replacing engineers with AI and more about reducing unnecessary inspections, avoiding avoidable disruptions, and improving engine availability.

3. Lifecycle efficiency and advanced materials

New materials, additive manufacturing, improved coatings, and component redesign can reduce weight, improve durability, and extend time on wing. These improvements have direct commercial value because airlines increasingly evaluate engines on total cost of ownership rather than acquisition price alone.

Key Restraints

The principal constraints remain long certification cycles, complex supply chains, shortages of specialized aerospace capacity, high R&D expenditure, and the difficulty of rapidly increasing engine production without compromising quality.

Another issue is the long replacement cycle. A commercial engine program can remain in service for decades. This provides recurring aftermarket revenue, but it also means that new propulsion technologies can take many years to achieve broad fleet penetration.

Business insight: The strongest opportunities are likely to emerge where engine manufacturers can combine new-engine demand with local MRO, digital monitoring, and component support. India and the Middle East illustrate this model particularly well.